Matter

Chapter 1

1. Matter

Structure of Matter

Modern physics has revealed successively deeper layers of structure in ordinary matter. Matter is composed, on a tiny scale, of particles called atoms. Atoms are in turn made up of minuscule nuclei surrounded by a cloud of particles called electrons. Nuclei are composed of particles called protons and neutrons, which are themselves made up of even smaller particles called quarks. Quarks are believed to be fundamental, meaning that they cannot be broken up into smaller particles.

© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

There are 4 states of solid matter 1. Amorphous – a solid that is not a crystal

2. crystalline – a solid with a regular polyhedral shape. 3. Quasi-crystalline – a solid structure in which there is a- long range incommensurate translational order b- long range orientation order with a group point.

 Diffraction patterns have Bragg peaks with a density in each plane being higher than would be expected for a perfect periodic crystal. 4 – Plasma is a positively charged particle.

Transition Metals – Ti (titan) and Zn (tin) both have high melting points, high density, and magnetic properties.

Non – Metals – C (Diamond) and Si (flint) - both form over 10,000 different bonds and have mystical properties.

Electromagnetic is what is used to separate minerals, the finer the grind, the better the separation. The more uniform the grind the better the melt. Due to different weights of the elements, water can be used to float off the light minerals. Harmonics are sometimes used to sort sizes for grinding.

Melting Electric uses low, long heat, gas uses high, fast heat to 3500 degrees at melting point venting off the oxygen as it goes. The Department of energy (DOE) state that carbon 14 falls under radiation regulatory guide line (5715 years) low level waste. The radioactive components of waste may emit alpha, beta and gamma and in some cases neutrons. Carbon cost (2002) $35/10g glassy, $55/10g fullerene, $40/g diamonds, $75/1.25g sheets (99.8%) 

Chemical affinity is the force of attraction of one chemical to another. Affinity reacts differently in hot or cold. Materials change form and identity sometimes lazily and sometimes explosively.

Osmosis is electrochemistry. Mass action ions in mass action, depends on the concentration of reactant and amounts of product, the current does not depend on product. Osmosis is the process when solutions of two different concentrations are separated by semi permeable membrane (solvent can flow but solute cannot). Skin cells are filled with salts, proteins and other material. When the pressure of the opposing forces only allows osmosis to go so far (equilibrium) is called osmotic pressure. Osmotic is an entropy effect. Proportionality between osmotic pressure and temperature is 1/270. The number of particles in solution would be greater if the solute dissociated into ions, when enhances conductivity. Conductivity is not a measure of affinity, nor is heat, but is a series of complex relationships. Spontaneous action happens with adding heat or given off heat in the reaction.

Phase diagrams can predict the composition of solids, but the materials age s the metal gradually changes. The mass of a myoglobin, a protein is 1,000 times that of water. Colloid means “glue like” and are aggregates of particles that are bigger than individual solute particles. The test of colloidal is a light beam shining through it – if the light beam is distinguishable it is colloid called Tyndall effect. Claude Bernard – anesthetics works because of a coagulation of a substance on a nerve cell. It is believed alcoholism, insanity and drug addictions are a result of colloidal proteins undergoing a phase transition on the nerve cells.

Organic material for non-liner optics

A - Nonlinear variations of refraction, (n, Snells’ law), absorption (k=1m_{E}/2n), reflection, scattering, interference, diffraction, polarization, ellipse evolution, focusing, wave guiding etc.

B – Frequency conversion, propagating phase mismatch and coherent interferences.

C – Rectification

Nonlinear optical physicists require knowledge of materials and their processing in order to avoid describing unrealistic situations and to allow design and construction of feasible devices.

The general principles are two fold: 1^st – materials will begin to oscillate coherently at harmonic, combination, and different tense. 2^nd – intensity or dc field dependent terms arise in the wave equations.

When a light wave propagates through an optical medium, the oscillating electromagnetic field exerts a polarization force on all of the electrons comprising the medium. The inner electrons of the atoms are tightly bound to the nuclei, the major polarizing effect is exerted on the outer electrons. With ordinary light sources the radiation fields are much smaller than the field that binds the electrons to the atom, the radiation acts as a small perturbation. The polarization that is proportional to the electric field of the light wave, if the radiation field is comparable with the atomic field (~ 10⁸ V/cm), then the relationship between the polarization and the radiation field is no longer a linear one. The light field needs to exhibit nonlinearity, obtainable with laser sources. Nonlinear optical effects that have been observed include harmonic generation, production of combination frequencies, optical rectification, and many others.

In an isotropic medium the general relation between the polarization P and the electric field E is expressible as a n expansion involving only the magnitudes since the direction of the polarization coincides with that of the field P=έ_o(x^E + x^(2)E2 +x^3E3 + …)  x is the normal or linear susceptibility. It is generally much larger than the nonlinear coefficients. If the general relation between P and E is that a reversal of the direction of E merely results in the reversal of the direction of P, if P(E) is an odd function, then the even terms are all zero and there are no even harmonics. In the case of crystalline media P and E are not necessarily parallel. The expansion is where the linear polarization is P^L=έ_ox^E, the remainder is the nonlinear polarization. The amount of second harmonic light that is produced depends critically on the form of the X⁽²⁾ tensor. In order for the tensor X⁽²⁾ not to vanish, the crystal must not possess inversion symmetry. This is also one of the requirements for a crystal to be piezoelectric. Piezoelectric crystals are useful for second harmonic generation of light.

 The electromagnetic field of the fundamental wave has a space-time variation e^i(K1z-wt) the second harmonic wave is e^i(K2z-2wt). If k₁=1/2k₂ the intensity of the second harmonic light is proportional to the square of the (slab or shells) thickness, this is known as the “interaction length”  the length is only 10λ_o to 20λ_o for a typical crystal. It is possible to increase this by velocity matching, the efficiency for second harmonic generation of light can be improved by several orders of magnitude.

Plasma

Plasma is an atom stripped of its electrons due to heat leaving a positively charged particle. Fast moving particles emit radiation and radiation exerts pressure. Plasmon is the collective excitation for quantized oscillations of electrons in a metal. The plasma frequency or Plasmon corresponds to the total oscillation of an electron gas resulting in localized charged densities. Given the conditions (div (^→E) =0 a global return force -q^→E affecting all the electrons responsible for the charge density is created such that if the wave λ  is the characteristic dimension of the charged density M  d²λ/dt²=∂ςq²λ, based on which λ=λ_ocos(ωp+φ). These oscillations are called plasma oscillations. Elementary Plasmon possesses and energy of 14 eV. Causing metals will be opaque to wave lengths greater than λ_p =c/V_p  and transparent in the opposite case, dependant on the wave length. The dispersion for a monochromatic plane wave  k2=μ_oεω²  leads to an expression in which k is an  imaginary wavelength and assumes the form associated with the imaginary term appearing and can be characterized by the depth of penetration (skin depth) This is the distance by which the field inside the conductor is reduced by the ratio. The electromagnetic wave is thus localized in a layer of thickness; this is called the skin effect.

Carbon is found free in nature in three allotropic forms: amorphous, graphite, diamond. A forth form is known as white carbon. Graphite is the softest, diamond is the hardest. Graphite exists in two forms Alpha and Beta, both are identical in properties except for structure “crystal.” The beta form is 30% rhombohedra. The alpha form is synthetic and contains the hexagonal structure. White carbon forms at above -2550K as transparent bi-frigent crystals. Bucky balls or fullerenes consist of 60 or 70 carbon atoms linked together and can withstand great pressure and trap foreign atoms inside the network of carbon capable of magnetism and superconductivity and a potential as a non-linear optical material. Fullerenes can maintain superconductive at temperatures as high as 45 K and has 15 isotopes.

Carbon is unique among the elements in the vast number of compounds it can form. Close to ten million known forms exist.

A brittle form of carbon is known as glassy carbon. It has good thermal stability and structurally impermeable to both gas and liquids. It randomized structure makes it useful in ultra-high technology application.

Carbon atoms can spontaneously link themselves together into long molecular chains and form extremely complex molecules such as amino acids, proteins, DNA called Chemical evolution. Diamonds will phosphoresce when exposed to radium, polonium, or actinium. The stone has a unique relationship with energy. It amplifies the energy of whatever it comes in contact with. White light is the prefect balance of all colors. It is an ideal state in which all the components work together to produce energy in its purest state. Diamond refracts all colors without diluting of filtering them.

Nanocosm

1 pound per square inch (1 psi) is a force you can feel, 14 of them make up air pressure at sea level. A Pascal = the force of a humming birds sneeze, 100,000=1psi. “To be a scientist is to think Gods’ thoughts after Him.” Johannes Kepler

Carbon atoms can bond instantly to any matter that comes close. This electrostatic promiscuity makes carbon central to the products, processes, and molecules that we call life. In nature carbon atoms can spontaneously link themselves into geodesic spheres. There exist other, linear, non-spherical type of fullerene, they form tiny hollow cylinders with outside diameters of only one nanometer. They exhibit properties that are contradictory to present understanding or laws of physics. Aligned in certain ways their atoms conduct electricity as effectively as copper. Aligned in a slightly different way they are semiconductors.

CN’s (carbon nano tubes) the range of properties open the door to computational devices measured in nanometers. At nano scales you don’t need a cascade of countless electrons to make a counting device, flop, or change states. A nano scale device will flag when a single electron is fed into it, or a single photon if you want nano computers, not running hot and slow, old fashion electricity, but running by cool, fast, efficient light. Carbon nano tubes have another striking property, structural efficiency, or strength per unit mass, but will explode in the presence of oxygen when hot.

A mirror is reflective because at the nano scale the metal coating configures its electrons as an electron gas. A modern microchip generates 10 watts of heat per square centimeters when operating.

Silicon

Silicon

The element silicon is one of the most abundant elements in Earth’s crust, second only to oxygen. Most rocks consist of silicon in combination with other elements.

Photo Researchers, Inc. /Charles D. Winters

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved

Silicon is a component of tektites, a natural glass of uncertain origin. Silicon contains 3 isotopes and 24 other radioactive isotopes are recognized. Silicon transmits more than 95% of all wavelengths of infrared from 1.3 to 6.7μm.

Silicon is important in plants and animal life. Silicon carbide has been used in lasers to produce coherent light of 4560 Ǻ. It has been thought that silicon might take the place of carbon in the number of compounds it can form. Silicon is commercially prepared by heating silica and carbon in an electric furnace, using carbon electrodes.

Amorphous silicon can be prepared as a brown powder, which can be easily melted or vaporized. Crystalline silicon has a metallic luster and a grayish color. Czochralski process is commonly used to produce single crystals used for solid state or semiconductor devices. Crystal Quartz silicon dioxide, Quartz can contain minerals “frozen” within, when cut properly can generate electromagnetic energy in response to applied pressure, it can store, release and regulate energy.

Titanium

Titanium

A combination of strength, low weight, and a high melting point make the element titanium a useful construction material. However, because titanium is difficult to work and more expensive than steel or aluminum, it is used far less than those two metals.

Photo Researchers, Inc. /Charles D. Winters

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved

Titanium is present in igneous rocks and in sediments derived from them. It is in minerals rutile, ilmenite and sphene and iron ores, in ash, in plants and in animals. In industry reduction of ores with carbon is not a useful option as intractable carbides are produced. Produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride with magnesium, and can be purified by decomposing theidide. Titanium is a white lustrous metal low density, good strength. It is ductile only when free of oxygen’s. It has 5 isotopes with masses of 46 to 50 and is stable. 18 other isotopes are known but are unstable. Titanium is as strong as steel but 45% lighter. When pure it is clear and has an extremely high index of refraction with an optical dispersion higher than diamond.

Zinc

Zinc

Zinc, pictured here as a bar and as a powder, is a metallic element. Many alloys contain zinc, and the element is often used in batteries and as a coating to protect other metals from corrosion.

Corbis/Lester V. Bergman

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Zinc can be produced by roasting its ores to form oxide and by reduction of the oxide with carbon, with subsequent distillation of the metal. Zinc contains 5 stable isotopes and 25 other unstable isotopes and isomers are recognized. Zinc is bluish white lustrous metal but is brittle at room temperature, it is a divalent metal and very malleable at 100^o to 150^o and a fair conductor of electricity.

Zinc also has unusual electrical thermal, optical, and solid state properties. Zinc liberates electrons by light emissions. The electrical conductivity is independent of the direction of the applied electric field. As a super conductor – once the current is up, it persists. Zinc is essential in the growth of human beings and animals.

The Crystal

Zosimus of Panopolis AD 300. “A stone which is not a stone, a precious thing which has no value, a thing of many shapes which has no shape, this unknown thing which is known of all.” The philosophers’ stone.

From antiquity to modern, we have only begun to rediscover the infinite uses of crystals. The crystal comes in many shapes and properties. As early as 5300 BC crystals were used for glasses, telescopes, holy fires, telegraphy, transmissions, astrology, weapons, light, medicine etc. Crystals are refractive, reflective, illuminating, and magnetic. The crystal has the ability to a line itself with natural electromagnetic fields and shifts of polar.

Bragg’s law – when a beam of light strikes a crystal surface in which the layers of atoms or ions are separated by a distance the maximum intensity of the reflected rays occurs when (sinΘ =nλ/2d) Θ is the complement of the angle of incidence and n is an integer. Bloch’s theorem – relates to the quantum mechanics of a crystal stating that the wave function for an electron in a periodic potential (Ψ(r) = exp (ik x r) u(r)) Ψ=wave function, Ψ(r) = periodic potential, k=wave vector, r = position vector, u(r)= periodic function that satisfies u(r+R)=u(r), R=Bravoes lattice of the crystal. (Meniscus)  has one concave face interior and one convex face exterior.

Collective excitations are a mode of oscillation in a many body system in which there is a cooperative motion of the whole system. Complex conjugate r cos Θ – 1r sin Θ Polar form of z* z+z* = 2x, zz* = x² + y² . Argent reflection of complex number about the real axis. Coriolis force simplifying the calculations of rotating systems (on the surface) such as the movement of air over the surface of a rotating objects. The torpid has major radius of R at a cross-section, self-induction in a circle ( A=πr²) L≈ μ_oN²A/2πR, N=turn if R>>r. Torque is the ability of a force to rotate a body about some axis is measured by a quantity called the torque. The torque is due to a force of F and has a magnitude. T=fd (d=distance).

Crystalline structures can collect, focus and emit electromagnetic energy. If a crystal is squeezed, it will release its own internal energy (the piezoelectric effect.) Chemically quartz is composed of silicon and oxygen (SiO₂), known as the building blocks of minerals. Silicon dioxide is important in our bodies. The transfer of energy from the natural crystal to our bodies, silicon could be the key to healing.

Astrological forces interlink with gemstone-crystal energy, in their positioning and exposure to the planets, gemstones absorb and store particular resonances in a sense “tuning into” the energy of the universe. They also allow other influences to pass through them, amplifying or eliminating those powers according to how their interference patterns interact within the crystal structure. There are no two crystals alike.

The place and time of their forming and the energies present in the earth and in the cosmos affect their creation and give them particular qualities. Chemical impurities and atomic radiation imbue them with color and luster. Each will emit its unique musical “note.” They do not lose their power with age or use (natural ones). Man-made crystals are not as strong. They are made to quickly to become attuned and accurately absorb universal vibrations. Pressure, temperature, materials, environmental influences- pre and post, and time, these are the keys to our design and assembling the spheres.