Chapter 3

3. Atoms

Models of the Atom

Experimental data has been the impetus behind the creation and dismissal of physical models of the atom. Rutherford's model, in which electrons move around a tightly packed, positively charged nucleus, successfully explained the results of scattering experiments, but was unable to explain discrete atomic emission—that is, why atoms emit only certain wavelengths of light. Bohr began with Rutherford’s model, but then postulated further that electrons can only move in certain quantized orbits; this model was able to explain certain qualities of discrete emission for hydrogen, but failed completely for other elements. Schrödinger’s model, in which electrons are described not by the paths they take but by the regions where they are most likely to be found, can explain certain qualities of emission spectra for all elements; however, further refinements of the model, made throughout the 20th century, have been needed to explain all observable spectral phenomenon.

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Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Our present corpuscular view of the universe is based on 12 elementary particles making ordinary matter and 12 elementary particles transmitting force for a total of 24. This number jumps to 36 if one takes into account that each quark “exists” with 3 different color properties and to 60 when on includes antiparticles. Every molecule in some sense knows from one moment to the next, where it has to go, and what it has to do and operates with a precision that chemists envy. All atoms have 1 electron of Hydrogen 20 min ½ life. Free atoms traveling at high speed in a circular motion will have the tendency to go to the center and bond. Anything which is accelerated must experience itself to be embedded in a hot gas of protons T=a( ħ/2πc) T= temperature, a= acceleration, ħ Planck constant, c= speed of light. The ratio of the electron and proton masses β ≈ 1/1836 and the fine structure constant α =1/137.

Heisenberg states that if we wish to determine as accurately as possible the motion of an electron, including its position and momentum, in an atom – the use of a microscope (gamma-ray photons) the atoms position and momentum is going to be perturbed by the impact with the photon via a phenomenon known as the Compton Effect. The more you increase the frequency of the radiation the more aggressive the photons become the greater the perturbation, caused by the experiment itself on the “canonically conjugate” variable of momentum and vice versa,

 Δq Δp≥h/2π.  

Compton effect

h(v₁-v₂) h= Planck constant v= frequencies before and after collision v₁>v₂ radiation increases after collision. Instantaneous angular speed w=Iim/Δt→0 Δө/Δt It is defined as the limit of the average speed Δө/Δt as the time internal Δt approaches zero. Protons mean life 1.6 x 10²⁵ years, the atomic mass unit, ½ the mass of a neutral atom. ¹²C 1amu = 931.49432±0.00028 MeV/c²

 Light Nuclei

Binding energy 92.16 MeV

Binding energy of last nucleon 16 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon 7.7 MeV

Spin and parity 0⁺

Even-even nuclei have angular momentum zero.

Nuclear magnetic resonance ђw=‌ ‌|μ| β/j

Transitions between levels may be induced by radio frequency, oscillating electromagnetic field of angular frequency where mean lives are dominated by the tunneling factor and is in turns depends principally on the value of kinetic energy released in nuclear reactions. In multiple scattering of charged particles the angles of deflection in a single collision agrees with Rutherford scattering formula for large-angles. If deflections occur randomly the vectors must be treated as a random walk. Multiple scattering increases rapidly with the atomic number of the material. The effects of multiple scattering become more evident for electrons and positrons because of their longer path length and the concept of linear range is not applicable to these particles. Thomson scattering states that the energy lost by the radiation as a results of the radiation emitted by the charged particles when they are accelerated in the transverse electric field of the radiation.

Superluminal

Tachyons travel faster than light. A tachyon requires 3 dimensions of time and 1 dimension of space. Humans require 3 dimensions of space and 1 dimension of time. According to electromagnetic theory the charged particles traveling faster than the speed of light would emit Cerenkov radiation, even in a vacuum. The theory of relativity says it is impossible to accelerate a particle up to the speed of light because its energy would have to become infinite. The theory, however, does not forbid the existence of particles with imaginary energy.

Violation is when a particle and antiparticle meet, then annihilate each other and then disappear in a puff of gamma rays. In order to create matter it involves concentrating twice the required energy and making an exactly equal amount of antimatter at the same time plus 1 extra of matter. CP violations provide a subtle link between inner space and outer space. Time is considered a two Way Street; any particle violating CP always flips over in time. The link between space and time and Einstein’s relativity reveal a violation of CPT and could create a bias in favor of a particular direction in space as well as in time. This would truly skew the universe in a topographical manner. Slight differences would arise from alignment or misalignment with the favored direction of space. In extremely low temperatures and the pressure of space the ultra violet radiation breaks chemical bonds.

 When atoms are locked in ice this bond breaking process recombines into unusually complex structures. Light missing at certain wavelength corresponds to particular chemical bonds with the capacity to absorb light. A product of carbon rich environment is guenons and has the electron transport ability and essentially converts light into chemical energy, coupled with the ability to absorb ultra violet radiation. Guinones stabilize unpaired electrons, an ability living cells need for various energy transfer activities.

Accelerated Reactor Energy

Requirements – Physics, chemistry, biology, geology, meteorology and several engineering fields. Gamma rays have an energy of 1MeV. Emitting S particles per second and the source strength of the flow through each unit of a sphere. If there is no intervening material strength is then θ=s/4πR² at 1 mw (1w gives 3.3 x 10¹⁰ fission per second) the number of neutrons per fusion is 2.42 the reactor produces 8.0 x 10¹⁶ neutrons per second. If 20% escape as fast neutrons S is 1.6 x 10¹⁶ S^-1. Apply the inverse square relation (only in a space craft) limiting fast flux is 0.085 cm^-2 –S^-1. Since charged particles – electrons, alpha particles, protons etc have a short range in matter. Attention need only be given to penetrating radiation gamma rays or x-rays and neutrons. Exposure down to 5mrems/y the value of r is around 15cm (lead, concrete and aluminum) When more than 1 radio isotopes are present, allowed concentrations must be limited.

 

WIMPS

Disease is ubiquitous, even the creation and evolution of artificial life have their silicon beings attacked by viruses that multiply and spread. Chemically produced elements do not have the same polarity as natural substances. The interaction between life and its wider environment is full of unsuspected connections between the inner space of biological functions and an outer space teaming with visitors. The consequences of this patchwork are a vivid picture about how and where diseases originate. Astronomers have known that there is a dark side to the universe.

This dominant dark matter is a cosmic sea of weakly interacting massive particles (wimps). A kin to the ghostly neutrinos. (millions pass through us per minute), but they are a billion times heavier. They are distributed in our galaxy at 1 to every cubic cm. Each wimp has a mass of about that of a small atom and moves at speeds of 250 km per second.

These particles impinge upon earth with a significant flux and produce a steadily accumulating spectrum of genetic damage and enhanced carcinogenic mutations.

Many forms are novel because of the type of interaction the wimps undergoes when it recoils from the atomic nucleus of biological atoms in a DNA chain. One interaction is the intrinsic handedness of their spin on biological molecules directly i.e. (thalidomide – the presence of wrong handed version of a harmless molecule in a sedative drug). A build up of interactions within the earth itself opens our species to attack from within as well as without.

 Direct mutations caused by incoming wimps may be less important than the more debilitating effect of high energy particles emerging from the earth. The evidence of global warming reveals that the subsurface mutation rate is reaching levels when long established surface life forms are in danger.

The subterranean heating by wimps, encounters with ordinary atoms triggers increased volcanism and plate tectonic activity. This allows huge numbers of complex self-reproducing molecules to come to the surface on land and sea.

Increased incidence of genetically complicated disease, like AIDS are rife along quake fault lines, 2/3 of the earths is oceans. Small invasive viral forms will enter the ecosystem and the food chain through marine life-forms and will gradually produce lethal variations and disease that will pass into human societies “via fish.” Shell fish such as oysters process vast number of potentially cartanogenic molecules. The danger is more acute, since they are worn next to the skin in large numbers (pearls, shells). Worse still the adverse effect snowballs. AIDS is constantly being rejuvenated in subtly different strains over the whole planet. One should avoid living within 2 hundred miles of a fault line and avoid that of the sea.

Entelechy

Regulation, regeneration, and reproduction shows that something with an inherent wholeness acts “on” the living system, but not the material “part” of it. Entelechy as purposive to teleological directing physical process under its influence, towards an end or goal contained within itself. Entelechy guides morphogenesis. The genes or chemical substances to be ordered, but the ordering itself is due to entelechy. Even when normal patterns are disturbed, the same goals can be reached. In a different way it can regulate or regenerate. Organisms are regarded as “throw away survival machines” there is nothing mechanistic about genes. They have the power to create form, to mold matter, to choose to engage in an evolutionary race and aspire immortality in a system. DNA molecules can not be selfish, intelligent or mold matter or think, but have been endowed with the properties of life and mind and have become like miniaturized entelechies that are complex spatiotemporal patterns of phyico-chemical activity. It is a necessary condition that in addition to the phenomenon itself there exists a second thing, the program, whose structure is isomorphic with (i.e.) brought into one to one correspondence with the phenomenon. The duality of form and matter is in fact inherent in all traditional philosophies of form. In modern context it is conceived of in terms of duality of matter and information. Mechanists assert there is no difference in kind only in degree between the realm of biology, chemistry, and physics. Organicist agree, but regard physical and chemical systems such as atoms molecules and crystals is in some sense living not mere inanimate material objects but structures of activity.

SUSY

Super symmetry (matter and force are the same aspects of the something.) Symmetry controls physics in a profound way. The symmetry between positive and negative energy. The possibility of mirror-matter hinges on nature respecting the symmetry between left and right (the energy in-between, both but neither.) Nature seems to like perfect symmetry in principle, but imperfect symmetry in practice called broken symmetry. WIMP’S – cold dark matter MACHO’s – hot light matter. Quantum fluctuations are caused by measuring instruments. The statistical scatter in data from long run of experiments obeys the laws. (ΔQ)x(ΔP)≥h, Q= position, P=momentum, ΔQ = Statistical spread in Q, ΔP=statistical spread in P. The indeterminacy in Q and P is always greater than h=Planck. P will show a large statistical statement of δP and Q. (δQ)x (ΔP) ≥h, (δP) x(ΔQ) ≥h

Symmetry

There is an inherent symmetry in the human body and any aspiration that disturbs that symmetry is not good medicine.

Strange Attractor

A strange attractor is a phase-space graph that charts the trajectory of a system in chaotic motion. A system in chaotic motion is completely unpredictable—given the configuration of the system at any one point in time, it is impossible to predict with certainty how it will end up at a later point in time. However, the motion of the chaotic system is not completely random, as evidenced by the general pattern of the trajectory in this image.

Photo Researchers, Inc./Scott Camazine

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Chaos Theory

Some scientists have felt that broader questions relating to everyday problems and systems have been bypassed and left unanswered. Many of these are undoubtedly complex and lacking in any kind of order. They involve non-linear equations that are notoriously difficult to solve. The availability of fast computers for repeating thousands of calculations and the existence of a new type of geometry called topology, an increase in non-linear systems where disorder and unpredictability “chaos” are common characteristics. Using the chaologists’ approach computer modeling. How close the prediction is to reality, depends on how good a likeness the model is to the actual system. The output is commonly in the form of computer graphics that are infinitely complicated colorful shapes which appear to repeat themselves on a smaller scale know as “self-similarity” or factional shape geometry. One feature of chaotic systems revealed by this approach is that many changing systems are shown to be greatly affected by their initial state. Even if the states are very similar to start with, they rapidly diverge. This is called the “butterfly effect” or sensitivity to initial conditions. Chaos attempts to bridge the gap between knowing what one item will do and what millions will do. Not all electrical circuits behave predictably and “chaos” helps to understand their unusual behavior. Most events that use the “chaos” method are usually non-linear dynamical systems. This is delta 4.669201 and keeps coming up in chaos. Chaos is not random; it is apparently random resulting from precise rules. Chaos is a cryptic form of order.

The Copernican Principle

The Copernican principle is used to predict the likely future longevity of the human race. The idea that your location is not special, is one of the most famous and successful scientific hypotheses of all time. Assuming nothing is special about the location, when you observe something, there is a 95% change that you are seeing it during the middle 95% of it’s period of observables. If you are at the earliest point of the middle 95%. You are just 2.5% from the beginning or 2.5% from the end. 1/40 or 1/39 making the future only 1/39^th as long as the past. Humans have been around for 200,000 years (5,100) years are 1/39 of 200,000. A brief window of opportunity during which we will have a chance to colonize away from earth. High technologies however, also pose substantial risks, such as biological warfare or missile-borne nuclear weapons. If we remain on earth, we will also be exposed to many of the same risks that other species face, including major epidemics, climatologically and ecological disaster, asteroid strikes. If we do not succeed in colonizing space during this period, we will be stranded on earth. Since time is short, we should concentrate on establishing a colony in space as soon as possible. The Copernican principle tells us the total number of human space flights was likely to be less than between 10 months and 1,250 years. Where are we now?

The Maya Prophecy

The Maya prophecy predicts the events of a comet coming towards us. Dr. Ronald Bonewitz – geologist, found direct evidence in support of the Maya prophecy. The world goes through a series of cycles, each one called a “sun” at the end of each sun the world experiences a cataclysm. There have been 4 suns. We are now in the period of the 5^th sun, due to end in 2012. It appears that the Maya prophecy has passed down knowledge of the 5,000 year return of a long-period comet. Archeological and geophysical evidence supporting this event has been recorded. The Maya calendar has been found to be out by 1 day in 6,000 years.

Sarah Lorner – Physics Maine College. The whole of Einstein’s life’s work was to show that what we perceive as hard matter is mostly empty space with a pattern of energy running through it. What quantum physics has shown that when we look at these patterns of energy at smaller and smaller levels, startling result can be seen. The basic stuff of the universe, at its core, is looking like a kind of pure energy that is malleable to human intention and expectation in a way tat defies our old mechanistic model of the universe. Our expectation itself causes our energy to affect other energy system. Sarah Lorner field investigation done at Vicente Lodge, Peru 1990’s. The third insight of the Maya prophecy predicted, humans would discover a new energy which formed the basis of and radiated from all things. The third insight of the Celestine Prophecy by James Redfield 1993.